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paste service-life (while on the stencil), printability and effects on stencil and squeegee life, fatigue characteristics, alloy interactions with board and component surface finishes, corrosion resistance, mechanical shock resistance, and numerous other properties will have to be understood, especially for the dense, high-end electronic assemblies that are expected to last many years in the field It may be less an issue for consumer electronics that are considered obsolete within a couple of years However, ruggedness, especially for portable consumer electronics, is a concern Many of the lower melting point solders have precious elements, whereas some of the inexpensive alternatives wet poorly, are prone to oxidation during soldering, and tend to corrode A few of the most favored alloy systems will be briefly discussed 45512 Bismuth Alloys Bismuth (Bi), an elemental by-product of Pb smelting, is generally associated with lower melting point solder alloys.

15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5

It is in short supply and Bi solders cost about twice that of Sn-Pb alloys Bi is compliant like Pb and shares several of its properties, such as high specific gravity and ductility2,3,4 Pure bismuth melts at 2713 C, about 50 C lower than that of Pb Very easily oxidized, bismuth alloys are best soldered with the aid of highly activated fluxes or in a nitrogen environment Bi forms a binary eutectic with Sn in the proportions 58Bi:42Sn (mp, 138 C) There are numerous bismuth alloys in use, many composed of two or more metals in addition to bismuth The Sn-Bi eutectic, if contaminated with Pb, can be problematic as it is known to form a ternary alloy with a melting point of 96 C adversely affecting solder-joint fatigue characteristics.

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In some applications, solder joints will fall apart if the service temperature is high and the low melting point Sn-Bi-Pb alloy is formed This becomes all the more critical with lowvolume Sn-Bi solder joints The Pb can come from solder predeposited on component leads, Sn-Pb hot-air solder leveled pads, or both Bismuth expands upon freezing, whereas tin contracts A phenomenon called fillet lifting has been reported5, 6 (see Fig 452) It is mostly associated with bismuth ternary alloys such as Sn-Cu-Bi and Sn-Ag-Bi used in plated through-hole (PTH) wave soldering, but has also been observed with Sn-Bi system..

Fig 773: Comparison of bearing types [3]

FIGURE 45.2 The expansion upon solidification in a bismuth-containing solder alloy can cause solder fillets to fracture and lift from the plated through-hole annular pads (right). Compare this to the schematic on the left, which is indicative of a conventional tin-lead solder joint.

As the board cools, it contracts at a different rate than the solder, and the fillets may lift, especially if cooled slowly or contaminated with Pb. Rapid cooling (~3 C/sec.) has been advised but may not completely eliminate this phenomenon. Care must be taken not to exceed the component manufacturer s specified heating and cooling ramp rate. Too high a cooling rate may result in component cracking or degraded component reliability. Fillet lifting may also result in lifted PTH annular ring (bonding pad) if solder-joint strength is high and bond strength of the ring to the board is low.

Some Bi alloys have too low a melting point for many applications Despite its excellent tensile strength and thermal cycling endurance (better than Sn-Pb), Sn-Bi eutectic (mp, 138 C) would not be practical for use in most automotive applications or even for high-end computer assembly, where the service temperature may approach the melting point of this alloy Bi also oxidizes rapidly, making Bi alloys difficult to maintain during wave soldering due to copious oxide (dross) production Bismuth soldering alloys are noted for their brittleness7,8; nonetheless, several bismuth solders are used commercially, the most popular alloys containing Bi as a minor constituent (in the 2 to 14 percent range) Aside from bismuth alloys inappropriateness for high-temperature applications and Pb contamination, safety is an issue According to C White and G Evans,9 safety is particularly a concern when using alloys with high concentrations of bismuth.

Cadmium (Cd), a poisonous metal, is a commonly associated bismuth contaminant Care is recommended in handling of this solder, and special venting requirements may also be mandated for its use On the other hand, the RoHS legislation has reinforced prior EU restrictions on cadmium, limiting it as a constituent or contaminant to less than 100 ppm by weight Bismuth and indium alloys are useful for step soldering, which refers to the use of two different solder alloys with two different melting temperatures used on the same circuit boardThe higher temperature alloy (eg, Sn-3%Ag-05%Cu, melting onset, 217 C) is used to solder surface-mount components and an alloy of lower melting temperature (eg, 58%Bi:42%Sn, mp, 138 C) is used for wave-soldered components.

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